This period is part of the Mesozoic era.

Cretaceous

Jurassic

Triassic

The Cretaceous period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic period (about 135 mya) to the beginning of the Paleocene epoch of the Tertiary period (65 mya). The end of the Cretaceous also defines the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.

As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the Cretaceous are well identified, but the exact dates of the period's start and end are uncertain by a few million years. No great extinction or burst of diversity separated the Cretaceous from the Jurassic. However, the end of the period is most sharply defined, being placed at an iridium-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the Chicxulub impact crater in Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico. This layer has been tightly dated at 64.3 mya. This bolide collision is probably responsible for the major, extensively-studied Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event. The Cretaceous (from Latin creta, for chalk) was named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates) found in the upper Cretaceous of Britain and adjacent continental Europe.

The Cretaceous is usually separated into lower and upper subdivisions. The faunal stages from youngest to oldest are:

Upper Cretaceous
Maastrichtian	(72 – 65 M.y.)
Campanian	(83 – 72 M.y.)
Santonian	(87 – 83 M.y.)
Coniacian	(88 – 87 M.y.)
Turonian	(92 – 88 M.y.)
Cenomanian	(96 – 92 M.y.)
Lower Cretaceous
Albian	(108 –   96 M.y.)
Aptian	(113 – 108 M.y.)
Barremian	(117 – 113 M.y.)
Hauterivian	(123 – 117 M.y.)
Valanginian	(131 – 123 M.y.)
Berriasian	(135 – 131 M.y.)

During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic - early Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangea completed its breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened and South America drifted westwards, Gondwana itself broke up as Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached). Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide. To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Within the continents, a broad shallow sea advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and then started to recede, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds.

Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe and China. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. Climates were warm, and even polar regions had no permanent ice.

On land, plants became quite modern, although the now-ubiquitous grasses did not evolve until the end of the period. Flowering plants were widespread, their evolution aided by the appearance of bees. Conifers thrived, as they do today. The first representatives of many modern trees, including figs, planes and magnolias for example, appear in the Cretaceous.

On land, mammals were a small and still relatively minor component of the fauna. The fauna was dominated by reptiles, especially dinosaurs. Pterosaurs were common in the skies and in marine environments (particularly in the early and middle Cretaceous), although on land they faced competition from the adaptive radiation of birds.

The insects began to diversify, and the oldest known ants, termites and butterflies appeared. Aphids, grasshoppers, and gall wasps appeared. Another important insect to evolve was the eusocial bee, which was integral to the ecology and evolution of flowering plants.

In the seas, rays, modern sharks and bony fish became common. Marine reptiles (including mosasaurs and plesiosaurs) and globotruncanid foraminiferids thrived. Baculites, a straight-shelled form of ammonite, flourished in the seas. The Hesperornithiformes were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like grebes. The Cretaceous also saw the first radiation of the diatoms in the oceans (freshwater diatoms did not appear until the Miocene).

In the extinction event that defines end of the Cretaceous, a significant number of marine forms disappeared. These include most shelled cephalopods (all ammonites, most nautilids, all belemnites, and reef-forming rudist molluscs), as well as all marine reptiles except turtles and crocodiles. Dinosaurs are the most famous of the Cretaceous extinctions. Dinosaurs that were unique to the period (such as Tyrannosaurus rex and Ankylosaurus) were wiped out. The last of the pterosaurs went extinct and the vast majority of birds did as well, including the Enantiornithes and Hesperornithiformes.

See also

• Chalk Formation
• Gault Clay
• Western Interior Seaway

References and further reading

Neal L Larson, Steven D Jorgensen, Robert A Farrar and Peter L Larson. Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway. Geoscience Press, 1997.

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