The 228 Incident (二二八事件) or 228 Massacre was an uprising in Taiwan that began on February 28, 1947. This event is now commemorated as Peace Memorial Day.

Taiwan had been handed over to the Republic of China from Japan two years earlier and tensions between the local Taiwanese and the new arrivals from the Mainland had increased in the intervening years. A dispute on February 27, 1947 in Taipei between a female cigarette vendor and an anti-smuggling officer triggered a civil disorder which was put down brutally by the ROC Army, with large loss of civilian life.

Taiwan under Japanese jurisdiction

As settlement for losing the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Imperial Qing China ceded the entire island of Taiwan to Japan in 1895. Taiwanese perceptions of the Japanese colonial era are significantly more favorable than perceptions in other parts of East Asia, partly because during its 50 years (1895-1945) of colonial rule Japan expended considerable effort in developing Taiwan's economy and raised the standard of living for most Taiwanese citizens to levels far higher than other places in Asia. Through public education the literacy rate was raised to over 80% by 1939, and many Taiwanese youngsters would study at universities in Japan. Family members of the elite were respected, and the rule of law was usually upheld (unless Japanese interests were involved). By 1905, the island had electric power. As a result of all this the average Taiwanese was usually better educated and more familiar with the intricacies of modern life then his mainland counterpart. This higher standard of living as well as an understanding of the importance of political organization and modern communications (such as newspapers, radio, and telephones) would prove to be important during the incident.

At the same time, Japanese rule led to a three stage process of colonization of the island, which began as an oppressive paternalistic approach, then a "doka" policy was instituted in which the Japanese considered the Taiwanese to be separate but equal, and the final stage being "kominka", a policy which readied Taiwanese to fight for the emperor. The "kominka" period hoped to teach the Taiwanese the "Japanese Spirit" (and eventually assimulate Taiwanese into the Japanese society), including compulsory Japanese education and forcing residents of Taiwan to adopt Japanese names. The later period of Japanese rule saw a local elite educated and organized. During the 1930s, several home rule groups were promoted as the Taiwanese developed a "Taiwan Consciousness" in contrast to the Japanese and Chinese. The Taiwanese eventually pushed for entry into the Japanese Diet, which they finally achieved in early 1945 near the end of World War II. During the war some Taiwanese youngsters were drafted into the Imperial Japanese Army to fight in mainland China and Southeast Asia.

Nevertheless Japanese colonial approaches distanced the Taiwanese locals from their former mainland counterparts. Many locals were proficient in Japanese literacy but educated poorly in Chinese ones, some even incompetent in daily communication of the Chinese language. Education in "Japanese spirits" furthered the discrepancy. Consequently the younger generations born during Japanese colonial rule were more neutral and even sympathetic or protagonistic towards Japan whilst most elder populace of Taiwanese locals celebrated the return of Chinese jurisdiction after World War II. However the celebrations would quickly fade as disillusionment with Chinese administration quickly set in.

Tension between locals and mainlanders

Chen Yi, the Governor General of Taiwan, arrived on October 24, 1945 and received the last Japanese governor, Ando Rikichi, who signed the document of surrender on the next day and proclaimed the day as retrocession day. This turned out to be legally controversial since Japan did not renounce its sovereignty over Taiwan until 1952. See also: Political status of Taiwan.

After Japan's surrender in World War II, Nationalist rule began in October 1945. During the immediate postwar period, the Chinese Kuomintang (KMT) administration on Taiwan was repressive and corrupt, leading to local discontent.

With the Chinese aides and "monopoly police", Chen Yi took over and expanded the Japanese system of government industrial and trade monopoly (sugar, camphor, tea, paper, chemicals, oil refining, cement). He confiscated some 500 Japanese-owned factories and mines, and tens of thousands of private homes. The Shanghai newspaper Wen Hui Pao reported that Chen ran everything "from the hotel to the night-soil business." Economic mismanagement led to a large blackmarket, runaway inflation and food shortages. Commodities were confiscated and shipped to mainland China where they were sold for inflated prices. The price of rice rose to one hundred times its original value between the time the Chinese took over to the spring of 1946. It inflated further to four hundred times the original price by January, 1947.[1] (http://www.2003hr.net/English/cul_xb0101.php) Carpetbaggers from the mainland dominated nearly all political and judicial offices, and many of the ROC garrison troops were highly undisciplined, looting, stealing, and contributing to the overall breakdown of infrastructure and public services.[2] (http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,792979,00.html)

For their part, many members of the mainland dominated administration arrived on Taiwan fresh with memories of Japanese atrocities on the mainland during World War II. Many viewed the local Taiwanese who had been brought up and educated under the Japanese system as tainted at best, subhuman at worst. This anti-Japanese sentiment served to further inflame tensions on both sides.

Rebellion against the Chief Executive and crackdown

Anti-government violence finally flared on February 28, 1947, prompted by an incident in which a cigarette seller was injured and a passerby was shot to death by Monopoly Bureau authorities. On March 1, security forces at the Office of the Chief Executive fired shots to suppress what had originally begun as a peaceful demonstration[3] (http://www.2003hr.net/English/cul_xb0102.php). The protests that followed in Taipei were violently crushed by ROC authorities which eventually led to all out rebellion across the island as word of government atrocities (both real and imagined, and under the circumstances not very much imagination was needed) spread via radio and telephone.

For several weeks after the February 28 Incident, the rebels held control of much of the island. The rebels were generally very well coordinated and well organized, and public order in rebel-held areas was upheld by temporary police forces organized by local high school students. Local leaders soon formed a Settlement Committee which presented the government with a list of 32 Demands for reform of the provincial administration. Many of them even talked of Taiwan becoming a U.S. protectorate. In Pingtung, a band of them sang "The Star-Spangled Banner" as they took over the town. Feigning negotiation, the ROC authorities under Chen Yi stalled for time while assembling a large military force on the mainland. Upon arrival, the ROC troops launched a massive crackdown and campaign of terror killing many Taiwanese and imprisoning thousands of others.

Arround the same time, Taiwanese were reportedly considering an appeal to the United Nations to put the island under an international mandate, since ROC's possession of Taiwan had not yet been formally recognized by any international treaties.[4] (http://228.lomaji.com/news/033047.html) The Taiwanese also demanded representation in the forthcoming peace treaty negotiations with Japan, hoping to secure a plebiscite to determine the island's political future.

By the end of March, Chen had jailed or killed all the leading rebels he could identify and catch. His troops reportedly executed (according to a Taiwanese delegation in Nanjing) between 3,000 and 4,000 people throughout the island. At the same time, Chen Yi was quoted by TIME magazine in April 7 1947 as saying: "It took the Japs 51 years to dominate this island. I expect to take about five years to re-educate the people so they will be more happy with Chinese administration."[5] (http://228.lomaji.com/news/040747b.html)

Some of the killings were random. Other killings were premeditated. Local elites and educated Taiwanese were especially sought out. Many of the Taiwanese who had formed home rule groups during the reign of the Japanese were victims of the 228 Incident. A disproportionate number of the victims were also Taiwanese middle and high school age youths, as many of them had volunteered to serve in the temporary police forces that were organized by the Committee and the local town councils to maintain public order following the initial rebellion. Several sources have claimed that ROC troops were arresting and executing anyone wearing a student uniform.

The initial purge was followed by the "White Terror" which lasted until the end of martial law in 1987. Many thousands of Taiwanese were imprisoned or executed for their real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang military regime, leaving many native Taiwanese with a deep-seated bitterness towards the mainlanders.

The total number of victims is still in dispute. Some say that as many as 30,000 Taiwanese died during the backlash. Others say that the majority of those killed were innocent civilians from the mainland. The number of victims is still being researched. The government has recently declassified sensitive material that is aiding the investigation. The official estimate is somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000 killed; most perished during the purges that followed the landing of reinforcement troops from the mainland. The government set up a civilian reparations fund supported by public donations for the victims and their families. However, only a few hundred have come forward to claim the money even though the deadline has been extended several times. Perhaps, the low number of claims can be attributed to the fact that many people were unaware that their family members were victims.

Legacy

The 228 Monument located near the Presidential Office in Taipei

For several decades, the KMT-ruled authoritarian government prohibited public discussion of the 228 Massacre and many children grew up without knowing this event had ever occurred. In the 1970s the 228 Justice and Peace Movement was initiated by several citizens' groups to ask for a reversal of this policy and in 1992 the Executive Yuan promulgated the "February 28 Incident Research Report." President Lee Teng-hui, who as a young Communist participated in the incident, made a formal apology on behalf of the government in 1995 and declared February 28 a national holiday to commemorate the victims. Among other memorials erected, Taipei New Park was renamed 228 Memorial Park and the 228 Incident Memorial Foundation was established to compensate victims and their families. The families of the massacre victims have demanded the government to declassify related documents in order to apprehand the any living soldiers responsible for the incident but the government has not yet acted on this request.

Prior to the 228 Incident, most Taiwanese desired autonomy from mainland China but not outright independence. The failure of dialouge with the ROC authorities in early March, combined with the feelings of betrayal felt towards the govenment and mainland China in general is widely believed to have been one of the major factors behind the birth of the Taiwan independence movement.

On February 28 2004, over one million Taiwanese participated in the 228 Hand-in-Hand Rally. They formed a 500-kilometer (300-mile) long human chain, from Taiwan's northernmost city, Keelung, to its southern tip, to commemmorate the 228 Incident, to call for peace, and to protest the PRC's deployment of missiles aimed at Taiwan along the mainland coast. The event was organized by the Pan-Green Coalition.

On the other hand, many Pan-Blue Coalition supporters have accused their political opponents of over-exposure and misuse of the tragic incident to leverage public support. Pan Blue supporters bashed some politicians who are said to have used it to widen the gap and incite hatred between mainlanders and native Taiwanese populations in order to gain votes. This is still a highly volatile political issue in Taiwan.

Timeline of the February 28 Incident

• February 27, 1947
  • Evening:
    • Taipei:
      • 19:00: Dispute between Monopoly Bureau agents and a vendor selling black market cigarettes in Taipei attracts a crowd of bystanders. Agents reportedly pistol whip the vendor, agitating the crowd. In the ensuing scuffle, one bystander is shot dead.
      • 21:00: Angry crowds surround police headquarters demanding the arrest and trial of the agents.

• February 28
  • Morning:
    • Taipei:
      • Demonstrators begin peaceful march through Taipei demanding the arrest and trial of the agents.
      • News of the march is broadcast to the rest of then island by radio.
  • Early Afternoon:
    • Taipei:
      • 12:00: Upon arrival at the Chief Executive's office, demonstrators are fired upon by security forces resulting in several deaths.
      • 14:00: Taipei city council adopts resolution requesting Chief Executive Chen Yi punish the agents and form a settlement committee.
  • Late Afternoon:
    • Crowds begin forming in the streets. Reports of mainlanders (especially those working in government offices) being beaten by angry mobs. Government offices are attacked in Taipei and Keelung.
    • Government buildings are fortified. Reports of soldiers in trucks firing indiscriminately in the streets in Taipei and Keelung.
    • Martial law declared in Taipei at 15:00 and soon extends to all major cities.
    • Government radio broadcast denies shooting incident.
• Early March
  • Governmental authority mostly confined to a few government buildings and garrisons. Control of Taipei, Keelung, Kaohsiung, Hsinchu, Taichung and Chiayi mostly through Settlement Committee and local town councils. Student groups take over most local police functions. Scattered fighting continues at various locations but situation is mostly calm.
  • Town hall meetings are held in cities across the island to prepare proposals for administrative reform.
  • Debate among the Settlement Committee and Taiwanese in general on whether to pursue reform of the existing system or to begin all out rebellion against the ROC. The reformists eventually prevail.
  • Settlement Committee continues to negotiate with Chief Executive Chen Yi in hopes of effecting governmental reform.
  • Amateur radio operators on Taiwan receive word from counterparts on the mainland of ROC troops being massed to move into Taiwan.
  • Officials at the US consulate in Taipei propose that Taiwan be placed under UN trusteeship as requested by many Taiwanese in light of the ineffectiveness of ROC administration. The US State Department rejects the idea.
• March 1
  • Morning:
    • Taipei:
      • Taiwanese leaders meeting at Chung-Shan Hall (中山堂) in Taipei form a "Committee to Settle the Monopoly Bureau Incident"(228事件處理委員會), they demand, among other things, the lifting of martial law, and general reform of the Provincial Administration.
      • Further reports of troops firing in the streets and civilian casualties.
  • Evening:
    • Taipei:
      • A group of students from the countryside marooned in Taipei enter the Taiwan Railway Administration building to inquire about the resumption of rail service. They are shot dead by armed guards. Soldiers fire into the angry mob that gathers resulting in at least 18 dead, 40 wounded.
      • Chief Executive Chen Yi makes radio broadcast where he declares the 2/27 shooting incident resolved through monetary compensation, accuses populance of "increased rioting". Promises to lift martial law at midnight.
      • Chief Executive Chen orders military units stationed in Penghu transferred to Taiwan.
• March 2
  • The Settlement Committee is expanded to include legislators, students, labor unions, and other members of the general public.
  • Chief Executive's representatives begin negotiations with the Committee who issue a list of demands.
  • Chief Executive Chen Yi concedes to demands requesting reforms, promises not to bring in more troops from the mainland while negotiations are in progress, and to restore island-wide communications to prevent a food shortage. In secret however, Chief Executive Chen cables the ROC Central Government in Nanking requesting reenforcements.
  • Taipei reported as being mostly calm compared to the days prior. However disorder spreads to other cities as government offices are atacked in Taoyuan, Hsinchu, Yuanlin, Douliou and Chiayi.
  • Troops from the south being called north by the Chief Executive find railroad tracks sabatoged by residents near Hsinchu and local roads barracaded delaying their advance.
• March 3
  • Negotiations continue. Government agrees to withdraw all troops from cities to garrisons and camps.
  • In Taipei, high school students and recent graduates form "Loyal Service Corps" (忠義服務隊) to maintain law and order in absence of governmental authority. Residents of cities and towns island-wide form temporary police forces to maintain public order and to protect mainland immigrants from reprisals. These groups are mostly comprised of middle and high school students.
  • Troops in Chiayi fire on civilians resulting in several casualties.
  • Taiwan Garrison Command secretly designates Taipei and Keelung as "safe areas" where martial law will be enforced. Hsinchu and Taichung as "defense areas" to serve as a buffer zone.
• March 4
  • Middle and high school students in Taipei hold meeting on restoring public order.
  • Students of the Kaohsuing First Senior High School (高雄一中) form a "self-defense force" to protect mainland immigrants at a school warehouse.
  • Settlement Committee takes out loan of 2 million Yuan for food purcheses to prevent starvation. Notifies all cities and towns to send representatives for negotiations.
  • Troops near Chiayi fire mortar rounds into the city causing several casualties.
• March 5
  • Taiwan Railway Administration reports to Settlement Committee that all rail services have been restored.
  • Local leaders request US consulate to convey message to ROC government in Nanking against deploying troops to Taiwan.
  • Settlement Committee decides to petition the ROC Central Government in Nanking directly.
  • ROC intelligence agents in Taiwan send reports to Nanking claiming that the Taiwanese are collaborating with the Chinese Communist Party and are attempting to overthrow the central government.
• March 6
  • Chief Executive Chen makes another radio broadcast where he promises political reform and local elections by July 1.
  • Chief Executive Chen cables Nanking claiming the Taiwanese are seeking independence and urging armed supression.
  • Five members of the Kaohsiung Committee visit ROC troops stationed outside of Kaohsiung urging them to stand down. Three of the representatives are shot and one is taken prisoner while the other representative is released.
  • ROC troops attack Kaohsiung shooting indiscriminately resulting in many casualties.
• March 7
  • Settlement Committee presents Chief Executive Chen with a list of 32 Demands for administrative and political reform. State that their intention is political reform and not rebellion against the central government or Taiwanese independence. The petition is rejected.
  • Troops attack Kaohsiung First Senior High School killing three student petitioners.
  • Despite pleas by the local Settlement Committee to avoid conflict, armed clashes between garrison troops and civilians take place in Keelung.
  • Classes resume in public schools in Taichung. A militia known as the "27 Brigade" (二七部隊) is formed in Taichung.
  • Local militia in Chiayi attack and capture government arsenal. They are aided by aboriginal fighters.
• March 8
  • ROC reinforcements from the mainland land at Keelung and Kaohsiung and begin firing indiscriminately in the streets. Military units already garrisoned in Taiwan emerge from their bases and begin firing. The newly arrived troops begin moving into Taipei and other cities.
  • ROC troops attack Taipei at 21:00. Gunfire heard throughout the Taipei area.

• March 8 - late March
  • Fighting intensifies as ROC troops begin what is to become a massive crackdown. Reports of indiscriminate slaughter of civilians, and looting by soldiers.
  • The purges begin with local elites, students, intellectuals, and leaders being targeted for arrest and execution. Members of the Settlement Committee and Loyal Service Corps are singled out for reprisals and liquidation.
  • Some local resistance groups such as the 27 Brigade fight against the ROC military but are eventually pushed back into the mountains and destroyed.
• March 9
  • Taiwan Garrison Headquarters issues communique ordering all "illegal organizations" to disband before March 10, and prohibiting all meetings and public assembly.
  • Purges begin in Taipei and Keelung.
  • Troops in Chiayi massacre 13 civilians.

• March 10
  • Chief Executive Chen Yi declares the Settlement Committee an illegal organization, redeclares martial law.
  • ROC President Chiang Kai-Shek states that the unrest in Taiwan is due to agitation by communist elements.
  • Four civilans in Ilan, including the headmaster of the local agricultural school are executed by ROC troops.
• March 11
  • All unauthorized telecommunications and transportation banned.
• March 12
  • ROC troops enter Taichung. The local student leader is executed.
  • 27 Brigade withdraws to Puli.
  • ROC troops enter Tainan.
• March 13
  • Newspapers are raided and shut down. Illegal books are burned.
• March 14
  • Curfew in effect in Taipei and Keelung.
  • Taiwan Garrison Command announces that the "insurrection has been supressed".
• March 15
  • Curfew in effect in Tainan.
  • Public order restored in Taichung.
• March 16
  • 27 Brigade disbands.

• April 17
  • A census is conducted
• May 11
  • Chen Yi is recalled to mainland.
• May 16
  • Government of Taiwan Province is established in place of the Office of Chief Executive.
• May 25
  • ROC government declares the incident completely settled.

See also

• History of Taiwan
• History of the Republic of China

External links

• Formosa Betrayed (http://www.formosa.org/~taiwanpg/kerr.pdf), by George H. Kerr
• Taipei 228 Memorial Museum (http://228.culture.gov.tw/html/No4-1.htm)
• Collections of US Media Documentations (http://228.lomaji.com/)
• Wikipedia Commons: Images Relevant to the 228 Incident (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/228_Incident_of_Taiwan%2C_1947)
• Reflection on the 228 Event (http://www.2003hr.net/English/cul_xb00.php)

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