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Known for being a male-dominated society, the role of Women in Hinduism has changed dramatically over the millenia. Although used in representations of power, such as Shakti and Tantra, women had been treated as second-class citizens until the 19th century, when several reform movements sought to provide justice for women. By now, almost all the practices mentioned below are illegal in India, although most are still practiced in some limited degree.
Historical practices
Hinduism is known for several historical practices which would today be considered by most to severely violate human rights. These include practices such as child marriage, dowry, bride burning, jauhar, and sati. Apart from these religiously sanctioned practices, female infanticide was also practiced.
Female Infanticide
Because of economic pressure applied from practices such as dowry, a tradition arose of treating female children as being inferior to males, leading to female infanticide. For instance, certain Aryan texts note:
- "Tasmat striyam jatam parasyanti ut pumamsam haranti" (Hence they reject a female child when born, and take up a male.) [Taitt. Samh. VI.5.10.3]
A 1997 U.N. report [Verma 12.8.97] has said that up to 50 million girls and women were missing from India's population, the result of systematic discrimination, including the abortion of female fetuses, officially banned in India. The sex ratio has also dropped from 97 women for every 100 men in 1921 to 92.7 in 1991.
Although illegal, this practice has been known to happen in recent times [1] (http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/south/07/07/india.infanticide.pt1/).
Incest
Due to the strict restrictions and regulations one feature arose that is apparently more common in Aryan society than in any other part of the world: incest. References to this practice abound. Often the girls were unwilling, but were then forced by their brothers or fathers. References abound even in the Rig Veda, showing that the perversion of brother-sister incest was introduced by the Aryans (Astaghfirullah al-Azeem):
- Pushan is the lover of his sister [Rg Ved. VI.55.4]
- Agni is the lover of his own sister [Rg Ved. X.3.3]
- Ashvins are referred to as the sons of Savitar and Ushas who are brother and sister [Apte 11].
- The Ashvisns married Surya and Savitri who is their sister [Rg Ved. I.116.19].
- Agni is the son of his father and his sister [Rg Ved.I.91.7]
- Yama wards off his sister Yami, saying marriage between brother and sister is forbidden [Rg Ved. X.10]
Father-daughter incest occurs in the famous story of Prajapati (later identified with Brahma) and his daughter [Rg Ved. III.31.1-2]. Prajapati was later pierced by Agni as a punishment [Apte 63].
Child Marriage
Child marriage of girls as young as five years old was common due to the custom of dowry [Nand 17] [Yadav 70] [Altekar 16] [Banerjee 70]. It was also thought that marrying young would prevent scandals, as a young girl would be much less likely to have had sexual relations or develop feelings for another man [Sheth 67]. The book of Manu prescribed that the best partner for a man was one-third his age.
- "A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases him, or a man of twenty-four a girl of eight years of age; if (the performance of) his duties would otherwise be impeded, he must marry sooner." [Manu IX.94]
Child marraige of boys was encouraged in order to recieve the dowry as early as possible. [2] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12159404&dopt=Abstract)
Although child marraige has been outlawed since 1860, it is still a problem in some areas today [3] (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1617759.stm).
Dowry
The Vedas prescribe that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom. The Rig Veda states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter accompanied the bride's procession [Rg Ved. X.85]. The ancient custom of kanyadan (literally: giving away of the daughter), where the father presented his daughter with jewelry and clothes at the time of her marriage, and vardakshina (literally: groon-gifting) where the father presented the groom with kith and kind are, in essence the dowry system.
Amongst the urban educated, dowry has become reduced to a giving and recieving of gifts by both in-laws to the newly married couple. Generally, a limit is agreed upon before the wedding.
Extracting of dowry in return for agreeing to a weddign has been illegal since 1960. Despite this, there have been many cases of attempted murder of newly married women whose parents are unable to pay the dowry amount requested by the in-laws, which can be both initially excessive and increased after the marraige. One report [Kitchen 1997] claims that atleast 5,000 women die each year because of dowry deaths, and atleast a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional.
Sati
(Complete article: sati)
The Rig Veda, the oldest of the Vedas, is the first to mention the custom of Sati. The following famous "Sati Hymn" of the Rig Veda is traditionally recited during the actual immolation of the widow [Kane 199-200]:
- "Let these women, whose husbands are worthy and are living, enter the house with ghee (butter) [applied] as corrylium [to their eyes]. Let these wives first step into the pyre, tearless without any affliction and well adorned." [Rg Ved. X.18.7]
In recent times, some Aryan apologists have tried to prove that this verse does not sanction sati. This concept arises from a mistaken reading of the word agne or agneh (fire), which they believe is agre (front). However, other evidence suggests that the Aryans definitely practiced Sati from the earliest times. The Garudapurana, another Aryan text, favorably mentions the immolation of a widow on the funeral pyre, and states that women of all castes, even the Candalla woman, must perform sati (the only exceptions allowed were for pregnant women or those who have young children). If women do not perform Sati, then they will be reborn into the lowly body of a woman again and again until they perform sati [Garudapurana II.4.91-100]. According to Vasishta's Padma-Purana, a woman must, on the death of her husband, allow herself to be burnt alive on the same funeral pyre [Abbe DuBois 345]. The Vishnusmirti gives two choices for the widow:
- "If a woman's husband dies, let her lead a life of chastity, or else mount his pyre" [Vishnusmrti xxv.14]
Also, in the Brahma Purana, it is said:
- "It is the highest duty of the woman to immolate herself after her husband," [Br.P. 80.75]
- "She [the sati] lives with her husband in heaven for as many years as there are pores in the human body, ie. for 35 million years." [Br.P. 80.76, 80.77]
Several Aryan mythological figures and goddesses are said to have performed sati. Some example from the Mahabharata include:
- several of Krishna's wives (Rukmini, Rohini, Devaki, Bhadraa and Madura) [M.Bh. Mausalaparvan 7.18].
- Madri, second wife of Pandu, considered an incarnation of the goddess Dhriti, performed sati [M.Bh. Adiparvan 95.65]
- Rohini, a wife of Vasudev, Krishna's father, who gave birth to Balram (Devki's child) later became a sati [Alld. Ch. 1018].
Several ancient observers mention the barbaric practice of Sati. Alexander the Great and the Greeks observed sati in Punjab [Onescrites in Strabo xv.i.ch 30]. The Greek Diodorus Siculus who lived in the 1st century BC, mentioned the practice of sati in his account of the Punjab in the 4th century BC [EB 11:421]. The earliest recorded historical account of sati is that of the wives of the Hindu general named Keteus by the Greeks who died in 316 BC while fighting against Antigonos. Although both his wives were eager to perform sati, the elder was pregnant. Only the younger wife therefore committed sati [Sheth 104]. The Arab writer Al-Beruni mentioned the practice of sati among the Hindus.
The sati was customary for the widows of Kshatriyas in the end of the first century BC [Strabo XV.ch.700.30].
Accounts from the southern state of Vijayanagar indicate that wives and concubines were not the only ones to accompany the king on his final passage:
- "Nicolo deo Contei states that as many as 3000 of the wives and concubines of the kings of Vijayanagar were pledged to be burnt with their lord on his death [and often ministers and palace servants accompanied the king in death]." [Basham 188]
The practice increased in popularity in Bengal during the British expansion [Harper 273]. This is also confirmed by the Abbe DuBois:
- "[Sati] is more in vogue on the banks of the Ganges, [while] in Bengal Presidency [only] 706 suttees occurred in 1817 [and in] the Madras Presidency [out of] 30 million inhabitants not 30 allow themselves to be burnt each year." [DuBois 357]
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, an Indian social reformer of the 19th century, preached against sati and convinced the East India company (who controlled India at the time) to declare it illegal, which they did in the mid-1850s. In 1988, Roop Kanwar, a widow in rural Rajasthan, immolated herself. A fierce battle ensued between traditionalists, who held her as virtuous, and modernists who believed that she had be coerced into commiting suicide against her will. In 1990, more than 50 widows were burnt alive in sati. [Verma, 12.8.97]
It should be noted that sati was performed by all the Aryan races, for it is recorded that the Germanic tribes used to immolate the widows of chieftains to accompany the husband to Valhalla [Harper 273].
Jauhar
Jauhar refers to the practice of the mass burning of all the wives and daughters in the community to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemies. Thus, it was generally the last act of the women in a community under attack, before the men launched their final offensive against the enemy. The act may be either voluntary or coerced. It can be thought of as a variant of sati, since it occurred in anticipation of the women's widowhood. As with sati, women who practiced it gained respect in the community.
Punishment of Women
Punishment for women was severe and often cruelly disproportionate to the crime. For instance, Aryan husbands cut off the ears and nose of their wives if they left the house without their prior permission. The Pancatantra mentions one such story [Pancatantra p.54, I.7th story "The Weaver's Wife"]. The weaver thought he was cutting off his wife's nose because she did not respond and he considered her unfaithful (in the story, it is the barber's wife's nose he accidently cuts). In the Ramayana, Shurpanakha, a rakshasi (female demon), fell in love with Rama. She proposed to him, but he directed her to his brother Laxman as he was married. His brother cut off her ears and nose for this crime, and Ram condoned this act [Alld. Ch. 1036]. The death penalty was prescribed for Aryan women guilty of infidelity. The Manu Smrti, the most original Indo-Aryan law-book, states
- "When a woman, proud of her relations [or abilities] deceives her husband [with another man], then the king should [ensure that] she be torn apart by dogs in a place much frequented by people, and the evil man should be burnt in a bed of red-hot iron" [Manu VIII:371-2]
That this custom was prevalent in the 9th century is confirmed by Arab reports. Merchant Sulaiman, an Arab traveller of the 9th century wrote that "If any man in the Indies runs away with a wife and abuses her body they kill both him and the woman, unless it be proved that she was forced, then the man only is punished with death; but if the woman consented to the evil deed, they are punished with death, both one and the other." [Arab p.56]
Infidelity to husband was considered a grave sin and it was believed that such women went to Aksaya hell [Br.P. 87.61 in Sheth 98]. The husband had the power to curse the wife who was disloyal to him. Thus the sage Gautama cursed his wife Ahalya for sleeping with Indra though through no fault of her own [Sheth 99]. In the Kautilyan period, if a woman was found guilty of a carnal crime her generative organs were cut off and she was ultimately sentenced to death [Arth.IV.13 in Jain p.164], although it is not clear whether this was only for intercourse with slaves. Adultery was defined extremely broadly, and could include the simple touching of clothes and even conversing with men:
- "He who addresses the wife of another man at a Tirtha, outside the village, in a forest, or at the confluence of rivers, suffer (the punishment for) adulterous acts (samgrahana). Offering presents (to a woman), romping (with her), touching her ornaments and dress, sitting with her on a bed, all (these acts) are considered adulterous acts (samgrahana). If one touches a woman in a place (which ought) not (to be touched) or allows (oneself to be touched in such a spot), all (such acts done) with mutual consent are declared (to be) adulterous (samgrahana)." [Manu VIII.356-358]
A Hindu husband could at any time accuse his wife of infidelity. If the wife protested her innocence, the council of village elders could then order an ordeal by fire. The accused wife would be required to pass through a blazing flame. Not just death, but any signs of burns would be taken as a sign of guilt and the wife would then have to undergo the penalty for infidelity [EB 8:986 'ordeal']. This custom was derived from the mythological story of Sita, the wife of Rama in the Ramayana. She voluntarily walked through fire after being accused of adultery, and emerged unscathed.
Restrictions on Women
Many restrictions were levied on women, who along with shudras (untouchables) were marked as inferior beings.
- "Husbands are not supposed to have intercourse with a wife who bore only daughters." [Hindu Law and Custom, p.145]
- "whilst her husband is absent, she shall sleep with one of her female relatives and not alone" [Vasishta's Padma Purana]
- "A wife, a son, and a slave, these three are declared to have no property; the wealth which they earn is [acquired] for him to whom they belong. A Brahmana may confidently seize the goods of [his] Sudra (slave); for, as that [slave] can have no property, his master may take his possessions." [Manu VIII. 416-417]
- "And as women, Sudras and the inferior members of the twice-borne classes were unfitted for hearing the Veda, and were infatuated in desiring the blessings, arising from the ceremonies, the muni, with a vision to their felicity, in his kindness composed the narrative called the Mahabharata." [Bhag.Pur. I.4.25]
- "They [women and Sudras] are debarred ... from being competent students of the Veda" [Muir III,p.66]
The Purdah system
Aryan women would wear a face-veil when going out. Sanskrit literature mentions that the practice of using veils by women, particularly in well-to-do families, was in vogue.
- "Prabhakaravardhana's daughter Rajyasri put on a veil when she met her husband, the Maukhari Grahavarman of Kanauj, for the first time. It is known from Vacaspati Misra (9C AD) that women in good families observed the purdah system and did not appear in public without veils ... However, Dhoyi, the author of the 12 C poetical work the Pavanaduta, relates that the women of Vijayapura (in Bengal) did not observe the purdah system" [DCGanguly 594]
- "Harsha's [1099-1101] [Lohara dynasty] coins [depict] a half cross-legged goddess [and] a veil appears on the head." [GuptaCoins 39]
- "[In] Gangayadeva's (1019-1042 AD) coins ... the female is shown as having a veil on her head which hangs down to the shoulders and upper arms." [GuptaCoins 39] Gangayadeva was one of the Kalachuri rulers of Dahala, the country around Jabalpur in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
- "Many of the female figures on the gold coins, like the sculpture and literature of the [Gupta] age, do reflect a somewhat new idea of feminine beauty which we now call classical [thinner and more slender]." [GuptaCoins 21]
It is now generally accepted that the purdah system (wherein women were not allowed to interact with men) was existent in India since ancient Aryan times [Altekar 167-70]. In fact, certain high-class women refused to entertain strangers at all [Altekar 175]. It seems that the bodice was imported by Muslims:
- "In several parts of India ... bodices [are worn by ladies under the cloth] ... this, i am told, is a modern innovation, and borrowed from the Mohamedans." [Abbe DuBois 341]
Reform movements
Shakti cult
There were exceptions to the rule, even during the Vedic Dark Ages following the collapse of the Indus civilization. Eastern India (Purvadesha), including Bengal, with its majority Mon-Khmer population, was only slightly Aryanized. The Shakti cult (mother-goddess) predominated (75% of all the idolatrous population is sill Shaktis), and women here had a much higher degree of freedom. Thus for instance they were not required to wear the veil. Shakti (or Tantric) cults involved the worship of women, and the acceptance of their supremacy. The Shakti cult was mainly limited to Bengal and Assam. The Dravidian women were also freer. Malabar was a center of the Tantric form of the Shiva-Shakti cult, and matriarchal customs still prevail. Till recently, polyandry existed.
Buddhism and Jainism
Buddhism and Jainism were both protest movements against the Vedic Vaishnava system. However, they did not lead to any major changes in the status of women. This was due to the emphasis placed by these religions on asceticism. Thus, although sati was opposed by these reformers, women were considered as hurdles on the path to liberation. The Buddha was very strict in his insistence on asceticism. He left his home and wife to become attain nirvana and considered women a hindrance to that goal:
- "Buddha is said to have induced his disciples not to look at a woman or even talk to her" [N.N.Bhatt 44]
Medieval times
Women are generally termed as thieves, dacoits, pirates, thirsty tigresses and hypocrite cats in the medieval Nath literature [Obsc 245]. Chaitanya was one of the major saints during the medieval period. He spread Vaishnavism in Eastern India, but aroused the approbation of the Orthodox Aryan-Vaishnavas because he allowed "conversion" from lower castes. Despite this somewhat liberal approach, his views vere similar to the buddhists in that he "thought it to be a sin to talk, think or even dream of women and that even the sight of a wooden statue of a woman can distract the mind and be responsible for immorality. He advised people to avoid being alone even with their own mother, sister or daughter." [Nand 124-127]
Modern reform movements
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Mahatma Jotirao Phule fought against social evils.
In modern times the degradation of women's status is related to the rise in Hindu Fundamentalism (in actual fact, a thinly disguised form of Aryan Fanaticism). The extremist organizations that comprise the Sangh Parivar (BJP, RSS, Bajrang Dal, Ranvir Sena, VHP etc.) are reviving the practice of Sati, dowry, female infanticide etc. in various parts of India. Thus, in modern times the status of women has declined sharply due to the activities of Hindu (i.e., Aryan) Fundamentalist organizations.
Role of women in modern Indian society
To be written
- Annie Besant
- Indira Gandhi
- Mother Teresa
References
- [Rg Ved.] : Rig Veda
- [M.Bh.] : Mahabharata
- [Br.P.] : Brahma Purana
- [Manu] : Manu Smriti, Manu, Aryavartta, 4400 B.C-1500 B.C. ? translations exist, see eg. The Laws of Manu W.Doniger and B.K.Smith, Penguin India N.Delhi 1991
- [Garudapurana] : Garuda Purana
- [Vishnusmriti] : Vishnu Smrti
- [Bhag.Pur.] : Bhagavata Purana
- [Alld. Ch.] : Allied-Chambers Transliterated Hindi-English Dictionary
- [EB] : Encyclopædia_Britannica
- [DuBois] : Hindu Customs, Manners and Ceremonies, Abbe J.A.DuBois, transl. by H.K.Beauchamp from French, 3rd ed. Oxford 1906
- [Arab] : India as described by the Arab Travellers by Dr. A.K.Srivastava, Sahitya Sansar Prakashan, Gorakhpur, India 1967 p.56
- [N.N.Bhatt] : History of Indian Erotic Literature - N.N.Bhattacharya, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. N.Delhi 1975
- [Sheth] : Religion and Society in The Brahma Purana - S.Sheth, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. N.Delhi 1979
- [Nand] : Women in Delhi Sultanate - L.C.Nand Vohra Publishers and Distributors Allahabad 1989
- [Gupta Coins] : Art in Gupta and Post-Gupta Coinage BNMukherjee Lucknow 1985 Lucknow State Museum
- [Altekar] : The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, Delhi 1973, A.S.Altekar
- [Banerjee] : Some Aspects of the Postion of Women in Ancient India, G.R.Banerjee
- [Yadav] : Society and Culture in Northern India in 12th century, B.N.S.Yadav Allahabad 1973
- [Pancatantra] : The Pancatantra, tr. A.W.Ryder, Jaico Publishing House, 1949, Bombay (1991 ed.)
- [Obsc] : Obscure Religious Cults - S. Dasgupta, Firma KLM Calcutta 1969
- [Harper] : Harper's Dictionary of Hinduism, M. and J. Stutley, Harper and Row Publishers N.Y. 1977
- [Apte] : The Sacrament of Marriage in Hindu Society, U.M.Apte, Ajanta Publishers 1978 Delhi
- [Verma 12.8.97] : Sonali Verma, Indian women still awaiting Independence, Reuter.12 Aug. 1997, New Delhi]
- [Kitchen 1997] : Kitchen fires Kill Indian Brides with Inadequate Dowry, July 23, 1997, New Delhi, UPI
- [Muir] : Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India. Their Religion and Institutions. Part I Mythical and Legendary Accounts of the Origin of Caste. - J.Muir, reprt Oriental Publisheres Delhi 1972
Missing: [Taitt. Samh. VI.5.10.3]
[Basham 167-8]
[Kane 199-200]
[Onescrites in Strabo xv.i.ch 30]
[Strabo XV.ch.700.30]
[Hindu Law and Custom, p.145]
[Vasishta's Padma Purana]
[DCGanguly 594]: CHI Vol II #37 p.595 #37 'Some aspects of the position of women in Ancient India',
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