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World War II, was the bloodiest, costliest and most devasting global military conflict in the history of humanity. Fought from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945, between the Axis powers and the Allies, World War II claimed 57 million civilian and military lives. Nearly seventy nations were involved in the conflict; fighting took place on the African, Asian and European continents. The geopolitical landscape of the 20th century was redefined by World War II. The war was borne out of many of the residual effects of World War I, while the conclusion of the war set the stage for competition between the former Allies which led to the onset of the Cold War. Note: This is an alternate article proposal for World War II.
Setting and CausesMain article: Causes of World War II The causes for and lead-up to war in Europe and the Pacific were different for each theatre. In Europe, they centered on the fall-out from World War I, with Germany's desire to escape the bounds of the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of Fascism and the ambition of its leaders, and the relative instability of Central and Eastern Europe after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire as key kindling for the eruption of war there. In the Pacific, Japan's efforts to become a world power and the rise of militaristic leadership there led to ever-expanding military operations in China and a thirst for resources unmet by limited supply within Japanese borders, eventually causing the nation to violently enter the war. European prelude Benito Mussolini ("Il Duce") with Adolf Hitler Main article: Events preceding World War II in Europe In the 1920s and 1930s, Fascist regimes took power in both Italy and Germany while fascist parties influenced politics throughout Central Europe. In particular, the National Socialists, or Nazis, of Germany with their leader Adolf Hitler, were very vehement about building a model state. A strong sense of nationalism was grown and exploited, as were pillars of fascism such as reverence of the military and obedience to authority. This was translated into a strong German state with a powerful military built on new strategic thinking, an industry growing rapidly in a pro-business environment, and political support growing for recovering territory lost in World War I as well as recovery of the nation's honor. In Italy, Benito Mussolini had much of the same rhetoric, but was less successful in transforming the nation to it. Germany's regrowth happened in stages. Soon after Hitler came to power, rearmament was made a priority. Money was spent researching new tools of war and building military industries. Agreements with the Soviets allowed secret training of new units outside of the limitations of the Versailles Treaty. In 1936, Hitler ordered re-occupation of the Rhineland and in 1938, Germany annexed Austria and demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. He got it, and in 1939 the Czech state completely broke up, with Slovakia declaring independence and the rest of the nation falling to German annexation. Hitler then ratcheted up pressure on the next targets: Poland and Danzig. Asian preludeMain article: Events preceding World War II in Asia In Asia, Japan was already involved in China by the start of World War II. The broken nation was a regular outlet for Japanese militarism and Japanese controlled areas grew rapidly in the late 1930s. The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) which erupted after both the Chinese Nationalists and the Communist Party of China reduced their conflict with each other in order to face the increasing Japanese presence in China. Initially, China had some success against the Japanese, but ultimately the tide turned for the Japanese, and they rapidly captured much of Western China. Japan's offensive was marked by cases of abuses of the civilian population--in particular the Rape of Nanking--which gave rise to increasing international pressure on Japan to withdraw. In particular, the United States, while isolationist in its relations with Europe, expressed particular concern over Japanese activiities, and began using sanctions on shipments of raw materials to Japan--notably oil. Japan had gained control of most Chinese urban and industrial centers before the start of World War II. However, China did not possess two resources that were highly valued components of Japanese growth and security: oil and rubber. These were primarily available from Southeast Asia and the East Indies, mostly under the control of European powers. Japan responded by planning an East Asian region under Japanese control which could be defended from European or American interference and could guarantee ample resources for Japan. This would also have the advantage of denying the leverage of sanctions to the United States, allowing Japan a freer hand in China. European TheatreMain article: European Theatre of World War II The European Theatre of World War II marked the starting point of the war when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and in response Britain and France, following through on their treaty obligations, declared war on Germany. Poland's territory fell to Germany, but the nation remained a member of the Allies fighting on many fronts in the theatre. German expansionAfter the conquest of Poland, Germany moved on first to Denmark and Norway in April 1940, with a swift seizure before sufficient Allied aid could prevent the move. Then, in May, Germany launched its western offensive through the Low Countries and into France. By the end of June, France had capitulated, and Germany occupied most important areas of France. In addition, Italy entered the war on the side of Germany, seeking to get a share of the winnings. After the fall of France, only Britain remained opposed to Germany. Germany planned a sea-borne invasion of the island, but first attempted to subjugate the nation from the air. The Battle of Britain was the first major battle to be fought almost exclusively by air, and Britain came through the winner, stalling German plans indefinitely. With the failure of the strategic bombing campaign against Britain, Germany turned to its submarines to cut the vital convoys that kept Britain alive. This had actually begun at the onset of the war, but it increased in vigour in 1940 and 1941. The Battle of the Atlantic was fought primarily between the German U-Boats and surface raiders and the Allied merchant convoys and their escorts. Despite early successes by Germany, and the continued threat U-Boats posed through the war, they were never able to successfully enforce a naval siege of the island. The Eastern FrontMain article: Eastern Front (WWII) Stalemated against Britain after the fall of France, Hitler turned his attention elsewhere. Italy had failed in its bid to invade Greece, while Yugoslavians had overthrown their pro-German leaders. Thus, in 1941, Germany invaded the Balkans, sweeping through the region and occupying it. However, intense partisan activity would keep many Germans bogged down there for the duration of the war.  The largest offensive yet of the war was to come in June, 1941, when Germany broke its non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union by launching Operation Barbarossa, a mammoth invasion plan designed to seize Moscow by the end of the year. German forces made historic advancement, capturing millions of Soviet soldiers, and wiping out entire Soviet armies. They covered great distances, however time caught up with them, and they did not reach their objectives. Instead, with the onset of winter, the Soviets were able to counterattack, stopping the German drive at the very outskirts of Moscow. Despite setbacks at the end of 1941, the Germans launched a fresh offensive in 1942, reaching the Caucasus Mountains, although this was answered again that winter by Soviet counter-offensive operations which caused dire losses to the Germans, highlighted by the destruction of the German 6th Army at Stalingrad. During the summer of 1943, the Battle of Kursk destroyed many irreplaceable German units, and for the remainder of the war, the Soviets on the Eastern Front were able to mount a series of offensive operations through the year. By the end of 1944, the Soviets had reclaimed much of the territory lost to Germany and were able to progressively push the depleted German forces west, ultimately driving into Eastern Europe and Germany itself at the end of the war. Many of Germany's allies fell as the Soviets advanced into Rumania, Hungary, and the Balkans. The Soviets finally captured Berlin in 1945. The war in the east would involve more men and material than any other battle front in the war. Offensives and counter-offensives would cover thousands of square miles swinging the front line east and west for three years. Some measure of the scale of the conflict can be measured by the amount of military effort expended by the belligerants on this front. In all, nearly 80% of the German war effort was expended on the Eastern Front1. Practically the entire Soviet war effort was committed to the Eastern Front, as was significant Allied materiel aid provided to the Soviets. North Africa and the Middle EastMain article: North African Campaign Alongside events on the continent of Europe was the struggle for control of North Africa, the Suez Canal, and the Middle East. Italian-occupied Libya provided staging grounds for the Italian invasion of British-occupied Egypt, although this move failed. Britain counter-attacked and threatened to drive the Axis from Africa. Germany responded by sending units to Libya in the form of what would become the Afrika Korps. This unit, along with the Italians, would fight a see-saw battle along the Cyrenaica coast against British Eighth Army in 1941 and 1942. In November, 1942, the United States executed the Operation Torch landings in Morocco and the Allies defeated the final Axis forces in Tunisia in 1943. Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Allied invasions of Vichy French Syria and Lebanon as well as Iraq, whose government was sympathetic to Germany, secured Allied control of the region. The Italian CampaignMain article: Italian Campaign With North Africa secure, Anglo-American forces landed in Sicily in 1943, beginning the invasion of what was considered the 'soft underbelly of Europe'. The invasion of Sicily was successful, precipitating the fall of Benito Mussolini's government and an armistice between the Allies and the new Italian government. German forces intervened to avoid Allied conquest of the entirety of Italy, and after the initial landings at Salerno, the continued Allied advance was a slow, costly matter through difficult terrain defended by veteran German forces. The Western FrontMain article: Western Front (WWII) On June 6, 1944, the western Allies invaded German-occupied France with landings on the coast of Normandy. With the success of this operation, they advanced across France, driving the Germans out of the country, often challenged as much by supply limitations as by the retreating enemy. Additional landings in the south of France completed the liberation of the nation. Reaching the German border, the Allies had to pause for supply. This gave the Germans the chance to reorganize, and firm up defenses against the next offensive. This came in the form of Operation Market-Garden, an attempt to punch through the Netherlands and over the Rhine and end the war in 1944. The operation failed, and the Allies were unable to press forward as quickly as planned. The defeat of the Axis in Europe Main article: The end of World War II in Europe The situation of Germany at the end of 1944 was not hopeful. The western Allies were on the borders of Germany in the west, within an offensive of seizing the industrial Rhineland region. The Russians were similarly positioned in the east, with the German capital Berlin in their sights. Anglo-American strategic bombing had reduced much of Germany to rubble, forcing industry to disperse. With the nation under siege from east, west, and above, Hitler planned a final gamble to stave off defeat. Attempting to recreate the success of the 1940 offensive into the Low Countries, German forces attacked in the middle of winter in an attempt to cut off the Allied forces in Belgium. The Allied lines bent but did not break, and eventually the Allies prevailed in what became known as the Battle of the Bulge. In the east, fortification of every point was ordered in desperate defense of the capital. This too failed, and the Red Army captured Berlin at the end of April, 1945. With the fall of Berlin and the death of Hitler, what remained in German hands was a small sliver of Europe from the northern tip of Norway down to the upper portion of Italy. On May 8, 1945, German forces surrendered unconditionally. Pacific TheatreMain article: Pacific Theatre of World War II The Pacific Theatre of World War II represented a stark contrast to the European portion of the war. Centered on the expansion of Japan throughout the Western Pacific Ocean and East Asia, naval engagements and amphibious warfare were more prevalent in many of the battles than large land forces as were common in Europe. Japanese expansionThe Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) was already underway in East Asia at the time World War II began in Europe, leading some to cite the Japanese invasion of China on July 7, 1937 as the start of war in the Pacific Theatre. However, as a part of World War II, the start date is most often referred to as December 7, 1941, when Japan declared war on the United States and the Allies with surprise attacks against Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, and various colonial possessions of the European powers throughout East Asia and the Western Pacific. Japan acted quickly to secure what it considered to be defensive cordon of islands in the Pacific from which it could sap the American will to carry on the conflict. In China and Southeast Asia, Japan continued to expand its area of control, in an ever more demanding drive for natural resources. Six months from their entry into the war, the Japanese and American fleets met in battle in the Central Pacific. The resulting Battle of Midway devastated the core of the Japanese aircraft carrier fleet, and marked the end of Japanese advances in the Pacific. Japan continued to seek another decisive fleet engagement to even the score, but the United States instead pursued a strategy to apply pressure along the Japanese perimeter, while using island-hopping amphibious operations to move the Japanese back. The defeat of Japan As the Japanese had expanded, they left garrisons on the many small Pacific Islands they controlled. The United States plan for dealing with these was to invade those that were critical for continuing the advance on Japan, while neutralizing those that were not to be invaded. Many very costly assaults were made by the United States Marine Corps to secure islands and airbases for the advance. At the southern end of the Japanese advance, on the island of New Guinea, Japan was halted from capturing the entire island by determined resistance offered by Australian forces. These two armies fought in the jungles in nearly unbearable conditions for control of the island. While New Guinea itself offered little in prize, containing the battle there prevented any threat to Australia itself from materializing. In Southeast Asia, Japan had advanced rapidly through British possessions there, until meeting heavy resistance in Burma. British forces, heavily consisting of Indian Army units, beat back the Japanese at the battle of Kohima-Imphal and the Japanese were thus denied their threat to India or to the vital supply lines to Chinese forces opposing the Japanese forces there. Late in the war, the United States was able to found bases closer to Japan and begin aerial bombardment of the home islands. While not as concentrated as the bombing of Germany, they were very effective due to the nature of Japanese construction and relative unpreparedness of the Japanese to deal with the threat. In addition, the loss of territory and more importantly the loss of shipping crippled Japan's ability to gather the resources she needed. As a result, Japanese industry was never capable of mounting the kind of production that even late-war Germany could maintain.  The Allies had plans for an invasion of Japan, but these were usurped by the development of the nuclear bomb in the United States. Two of these were dropped on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Presented with an unpalatable, but inevitable decision, Japan surrendered to the Allies on September 2, 1945--six years and one day after Germany launched the attack on Poland. Wartime politicsTemp note: More needs to be elaborated on about this aspect of the war. Perhaps once there is some good stuff here, the picture of the Big Three can be moved here? Civil impactWorld War II brought with it unprecedented civilian suffering. Of the more than 50 million deaths attributed to the war, more than half were civilians, killed in a variety of manners. Many died as a result of combat operations, and many more as a result of the disruptions to food and essential human services combined with the destruction of homes and civic facilities by the war. Many more died as a result of strategic warfare specifically targeting civilian areas, designed to reduce popular support for governments and destroy the productivity of the civilian population towards the war effort. Additionally, many were executed on the basis of their nationality, ethnicity, and religion. Holocaust Main article: Holocaust The most prominent and best organized campaign to kill civilians was the variety of programs initiated by the Nazis of Germany. Initially targeting their own Jewish population, along with other groups of undesirables, the German program began with camps to isolate these populations, followed with forced labor and finally outright extermination of the population. Jews, homosexuals, and the disabled were early candidates, but political opponents such as socialists and outspoken religious persons (primarily Catholics), were also included. Once the war began, and as German conquests grew, newly occupied lands were included in the effort. Poland in particular suffered greatly, with nearly all of its Jewish population as well as a good number of Catholics being exterminated. Russians and other conquered Slavic peoples would also be encamped and die in huge numbers at the hands of Germany. It may never be known how many perished in concentration camps, in extermination programs, and as a result of general persecution at the hands of German authorities. Estimates however run over 10 million deaths, of which 5 to 6 million were Jews killed as a result of targeted extermination programs. Soviet campsMain article: Gulag Germany was not alone in organized slaughter of civilians. Stalin's Soviet Union also engaged in such activities. Captured German troops suffered greatly, but so did civilians from locales liberated from the Germans, many of whom were accused of collaborating. In areas where there was collaboration on a large scale, the price paid by civilians was even higher. Russian prisoners captured by Germany who were lucky enough to survive German camps would often be greeted by the Soviets as traitors and put through similar treatment. Since such activities continued after the war, and because Soviet records are not clear, it is impossible to clearly know how many died from Soviet persecution. It is especially unclear how many Russians suffered in this manner. ChinaWhile the Holocaust perpetrated by Germany is widely known and was well organized, it is rivaled in the sheer number of deaths by the civilian carnage created by the Japanese forces in China. As the Germans viewed their eastern neighbors, Japan viewed the Chinese as less than human and widespread commitment of war crimes was seen as acceptable and was in fact encouraged by the leadership. Estimates are very rough as to the extent of this behaviour, but may well have exceeded 10 million deaths. Western AlliesMain article: Japanese American internment Persecution of civilians was not limited to the Axis or totalitarian powers in the war. Citizens of the Western Allies as well suffered in cases where they were descendants of Axis nationalities. In particular American citizens of Japanese heritage were encamped in internment camps, most for the duration of the war. It must be made clear that there was never an intent upon the United States to cause death, although conditions did cause some. However, families and individuals suffered greatly under this program. The United States government has since apologized and made reparations available to the victims of this program. Strategic warfareMain article: Strategic Bombing During World War II Initiated by Germany as a way of terrorizing and demoralizing urban populations to speed German conquests, strategic warfare revolved around the use of air power to strike enemy cities. The effectiveness of the German campaigns were limited due to the relatively poor design of their bombers for this mission and small size of their air force. Near the middle of the war, the Allies began using large-scale strategic warfare against Germany. Using more effective bombers in greater quantities, they were able to create devastating impacts on German cities. By the end of the war, they were able to literally turn urban centers into fireballs, practically melting the city. The civilian losses were heavy, and in Germany were estimated around 300,000. Whether or not the campaign truly helped bring victory quicker remains unclear. Japan's civilian population was even more specifically attacked. Unlike Germany, who had an industrial base that allowed industry to be the primary target and the civilian population secondary, in Japan the nature of their industry made this impractical. Japan's civilian population was crowded into urban regions in cities that were built primarily of wood (unlike Germany's heavily stone-based architecture), which lent them to be attacked by incendiary bombs creating fires that overwhelmed entire cities. The United States employed newer and bigger bombers than against Germany as well. Ultimately though, the greatest strike came in the form of two nuclear attacks, each targeting a civilian population. Total Japanese casualties to the bombing was around 400,000. The campaign was however credited with precipitating the Japanese surrender. OutcomeMain article: Outcome of World War II The direct outcome of the war was the victory of the Allies. Each of the Axis powers had been forced to accept unconditional surrender. Germany was occupied by forces from the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and France, while Austria was divided from Germany and similarly occupied. Japan was occupied by the United States while the Soviet Union occupied the Eastern European nations. Unlike World War I, when debilitating restrictions were put upon the defeated nations that did not allow them to rejoin the world community without conflict, the defeated powers were offered aid to rehabilitate them and return them to the world as peaceful, constructive members of the global community. To this end both Germany and Japan have again become influential and important nations without having to fight a war to do so. The failure of the League of Nations to prevent the war brought the formation of new and revamped international body, the United Nations, which remains today as the preeminent organization working for international peace and cooperation. Lasting effects Main article: Global effects of World War II Cracks soon developed between the Allies however, as their differing ideologies brought them into conflict. Each had laid claim to specific areas of the Axis regions. In Europe, each formed a strategic alliance amongst its area of influence. In the west, the United States, Britain, and France formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. In the east, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact amongst Eastern European nations. The lasting stand-off between the two would become of the legacies of the conflict, the Cold War. Throughout the world, anti-colonialism was encouraged by the end of the war. Some of these conflicts became battlegrounds for the Cold War powers, but many happened before that period. In particular, Britain and France relinquished much of their colonial empires quickly after the war. India broke from Britain quickly, as did the Philippines from the United States. Some divorces were contested, such as Indochina and many African colonies. One of the most powerful new nations to emerge however was Israel. On the heels of the Holocaust, the world's Jewish population had new vigor in creating their own state. The use of Jewish troops had given them combat experience, which was soon put to the test as Israel fought for its independence and survival. Technology and weaponryMain article: Military technology during World War II World War II saw unprecedented leaps in technology in virtually every field. Technological developments often led to strategic advantages at different stages and often helped shape the course of the war. Production of military equipment by all combatants was critical to the success of increasingly mechanized forces. Ultimately, the Allies' ability to vastly out-produce the Axis nations figured prominently in allowing them to win the war. Involvement and impactMain article: Participants in World War II No nation on earth was unaffected by World War II in some way. Most nations at some point joined either the Axis or Allies, and a few fought on both sides. A number of nations were created by the war, and some did not survive it. Some of the more prominent participants are listed here:
SummaryWorld War II was the largest armed conflict in history. No conflict before or since has involved more combatants, covered more of the earth, or caused more death and destruction. However, its immensity was only one of the notable aspects of the conflict. Some others worthy of note are:
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